The OLDEST Evidence of Neanderthals in Europe

By: Greg Schmalzel

When most people think of Neanderthals, they often picture a brutish-looking, semi-ape human banging two rocks together. This couldn’t be further from the truth. Though they did create stone tools using a percussive method called flint knapping, it was methodical and strategic. Their intelligence and sociality were also much more complex than you may think. Physically, they didn’t look much different from us. In fact, Neanderthals were more similar to us than they were to chimpanzees or more ancient hominins.

Partly what made them so human-like, were their near-modern behaviors that began with Homo erectus and continued through us. They were an exploratory species and their adventurous nature is what inspired this video. They traveled far and wide, hunting and gathering in groups. From Siberia to France, we have evidence of Neanderthals across Eurasia. They managed to not only survive in these newly explored lands but also develop symbolism and complex cultural practices. 

Europe, in particular, has produced great quantities of Neanderthal remains and artifacts, but how far back do they go? What evidence do we have of these early pioneers carving out a life on the continent? In this video, we’ll explore who these ancient travelers were and how far back we can trace their lineage on the European continent. 

To begin, let’s dive into the biological and cultural traits that define this fascinating species.

For the full YouTube video, click HERE.

Who Were the Neanderthals?

We are currently the only living human species on the planet, but this was not always the norm. Before about 50,000 years ago, various human species walked the earth, some even crossed the seas. It is widely accepted that we all originated in Africa, but different species migrated to new continents at different times. In the context of this discussion, three species are particularly important: Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis (aka Neanderthals), and Homo sapiens (us).

All three fall under the genus Homo, a genus that began to appear in Africa between 3 and 2.5 million years ago. We are roughly defined by our capacity to walk on two legs habitually, and a combination of our tool use and hunting and gathering subsistence strategies. Homo erectus is the oldest and longest-lived, having existed from about 1.9 million to 100,000 years ago. Also, they were the first species to widely diffuse out of Africa, inhabiting parts of Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.

The waters are murky when deciphering the transition from Homo erectus to more modern human forms. Many anthropologists suggest that Neanderthals and modern humans are direct descendants of Erectus, the former evolving from those that migrated to Europe, while those evolving into us remained in Africa. Others believe there were more transitionary forms in between, like Homo heidelbergensis, which we will touch on again later in the video.

According to a genome sequence taken from a Siberian Neanderthal woman’s toe bone, it is likely that all AMH and Neanderthals share a common ancestor from roughly 550,000 years ago. With this evidence in hand, we can safely say that by around 500,000 years ago, AMH was still taking shape in Africa, and Neanderthals were likely paving their path into Eurasia. Hundreds of thousands of years later, when AMH left Africa, our two species met again, resulting in interbreeding and the integration of Neanderthal DNA into our own, which we now have evidence of.

This overlap in time, geography, and genetics shows that the line between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals is not so obvious and is still debated. Are we actually two separate species? Or were Neanderthals just a variant of Homo sapiens adapting to European climates? 

How did they differ from us?

Physically, the commonalities outweigh the differences. We share walking on two legs with an upright posture. We share having reduced body hair compared to our earlier hominin ancestors. We share having longer legs than arms.

The differences are few but notable.

• The first thing you would probably notice if you were to see a Neanderthal walking down the street would be their face and head. Compared to a modern human, Neanderthals had:
  • More prominent brow ridges with shallower foreheads
  • Larger noses and a prognathic lower face
  • A longer occipital bone, giving their skulls a more elongated, football-like shape
• The second difference your eyes would latch onto is their body shape. They were much stouter than the typical person today.
  • The conventional viewpoint has been that this is an adaptation to the colder climates of Eurasia. Shorter, wider bodies with shorter limbs are better for conserving heat.
  • A more recent hypothesis argues that Neanderthals evolved in woodland environments that required sprinting and ambushing strategies for hunting, rather than endurance running like AMH in Africa.

Neanderthal Sociality and Culture

Socially, Neanderthals likely lived in smaller groups than AMH. One archaeological study of footprints from an occupational site in France suggests that this particular group of Neanderthals consisted of only 10-13 individuals. Some historians and researchers suggest that this difference in group size (in addition to our storytelling abilities) is what resulted in our species’ success over the Neanderthals.

• The stone tool industry most associated with Neanderthals is called the Mousterian complex, which relied on the Levallois technique. This technique required skill and forethought, showing that Neanderthals were technologically adept.
• Neanderthals also produced symbolic art and likely had some form of language.
  • Red ochre, a symbolic pigment, was widely used by European Neanderthals and sometimes transported long distances.
  • Marine shells with red ochre pigment have been found in Neanderthal contexts.
  • Some Neanderthals buried their dead, indicating ritualistic behavior.

The evidence for language is less clear, but one study has shown that the hyoid bone of Neanderthals (which helps produce speech) is nearly identical to that of AMH.

The End of Neanderthals

We see major declines in Neanderthal evidence around 40,000 years ago, and they were likely totally gone by 35,000 years ago. Given their extensive use of material culture and other similarities to modern people, why did they go extinct?

• Some argue that AMH outcompeted Neanderthals through larger social networks and more advanced cultural strategies.
• Genetic studies suggest that low genetic diversity may have doomed Neanderthals. Without enough variation in their gene pool, harmful genes may have persisted, making it harder for them to adapt.
• Rather than violence, it seems that AMH simply outnumbered and absorbed Neanderthals, leaving behind remnants of their DNA in our genomes today.

Now that we have a decent overview of the Neanderthal story and what they were like anatomically and culturally, let’s see how far back we find evidence of their presence in Europe.

Site 1: La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France

In 1908, in the village of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France, archaeologists uncovered one of the most complete Neanderthal skeletons ever found—"The Old Man of La Chapelle." Dating to 60,000 years ago, this discovery reshaped our understanding of Neanderthals.

The Old Man, estimated to be 40–50 years old, suffered from arthritis, tooth loss, and mobility issues, yet he lived for decades. This suggests his community cared for him, providing food and support—challenging the outdated view of Neanderthals as primitive brutes.

What made this find even more remarkable was the skeleton’s placement in a shallow depression, possibly an intentional burial—a practice once thought unique to modern humans. Though initially debated, later excavations support the idea of Neanderthal funerary practices.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints remains a landmark discovery, offering a rare glimpse into Neanderthal anatomy, social bonds, and even their relationship with death—proving they were far more human than once believed.

Site 2: La Ferrassie, France

Photo by Thilo Parg.

Nestled in southwestern France’s Dordogne region, La Ferrassie is one of the most significant Neanderthal sites ever discovered. Excavations revealed the remains of at least seven Neanderthals, including an adult male, a female, several children, and an infant—suggesting a closely connected group, possibly a family.

The La Ferrassie 1 skeleton, a well-preserved adult male, exhibits classic Neanderthal traits adapted for Ice Age survival. His remains, along with child burials, indicate Neanderthals cared for their dead—a practice that may hint at spiritual beliefs.

Stratigraphic layers reveal a long history of human occupation. Mousterian tools, dating back 93,000 years, showcase Neanderthal ingenuity in crafting scrapers and bifaces for butchering and woodworking. Later, Aurignacian artifacts—dating to 42,000 years ago—mark the arrival of modern humans, bringing advanced tools, ornaments, and symbolic behavior.

La Ferrassie stands as a powerful testament to Neanderthal culture, their struggles, and their surprising similarities to us.

Site 3: Krapina, Croatia

Photo by Radovčić, D., et al. 2015. “Evidence for Neandertal Jewelry: Modified White-Tailed Eagle Claws at Krapina.” PLoS ONE 10(3): e0119802.

Dating to 130,000 years ago, Krapina in modern-day Croatia is one of the most extensive Neanderthal sites ever found. The remains of at least 24 individuals were uncovered in a collapsed cave overlooking the Krapinica River, offering a glimpse into early Neanderthal life.

Beyond the sheer number of fossils, Krapina provides evidence of symbolic behavior. Among the discoveries were eight modified eagle talons, likely worn as prehistoric jewelry. This is indicated by specific:

• Cut marks
• Polishing
• Fiber residues

These characteristics suggest they were strung together, possibly as a necklace or adornment. The presence of ochre and charcoal hints at a deeper cultural significance.

However, Krapina also has a darker side. Archaeologists noted unusual cut marks, disarticulation, and bone breakage, suggesting possible cannibalism—perhaps for survival, ritual, or warfare. While alternative explanations exist, such as cave collapses or scavenging, the debate continues.

Krapina challenges our perceptions of Neanderthals, revealing both their capacity for symbolism and the unsettling mysteries of their past.

Site 4: Sima de los Huesos, Spain

Illustration by Arsuaga JL, Martínez I, Gracia-Téllez A, Carretero JM, Esquivel A, García N, Lorenzo C, Quam R, Aramburu A, Sala N, Trueba J. How the Sima de los Huesos was won. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2024 Jul;307(7):2225-2245.

Deep within the Atapuerca Mountains of Spain lies Sima de los Huesos, or the “Pit of Bones”—one of the most important fossil sites for understanding the origins of Neanderthals. Located over 500 meters inside the Cueva Mayor cave system, this chamber contains the remains of at least 28 individuals dating back 430,000 years, placing them near the beginning of the Neanderthal lineage.

A Species in Transition

The skeletal remains at Sima de los Huesos show a blend of traits. Some features—such as their mid-facial projection, large teeth, and robust jaws—are characteristic of Neanderthals, while others, like the less pronounced occipital buns, resemble Homo heidelbergensis, a species thought to be their ancestor. This mix of traits makes classification difficult, sparking debate over whether these individuals were early Neanderthals or a transitional population.

Genetic Clues and Link to Denisovans

Ancient DNA analysis has revealed that the individuals from Sima de los Huesos were closely related to Neanderthals, though some genetic markers suggest a connection to Denisovans, an archaic human species known from Siberia. This implies that Neanderthals and Denisovans may have shared a common ancestor earlier than previously believed, complicating the story of human evolution.

Earliest Evidence of Funerary Behavior?

One of the most intriguing aspects of Sima de los Huesos is how the bones got there. Some researchers believe the remains were intentionally placed in the pit, possibly making this the earliest known example of funerary behavior. Others argue that natural forces, such as cave collapses or water transport, may have moved the remains. Regardless, the sheer number of individuals in one place suggests some form of deliberate deposition.

This site remains a crucial piece of the puzzle in tracing Neanderthal origins. It challenges assumptions about when they first emerged, how they were related to other archaic humans, and whether they engaged in early symbolic behavior. While many questions remain, Sima de los Huesos provides one of the most detailed snapshots of early Neanderthal evolution.

Site 5: The Mauer Site

The Mauer site near Heidelberg, Germany, is crucial to our understanding of human evolution, primarily due to the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible in 1907. This jaw, with its large, thick teeth and lack of a chin, was unlike any modern human and was later identified as belonging to Homo heidelbergensis, the species' type specimen. The fossil was found in the lower sands of the Mauer Sands, which were deposited by a river thousands of years ago. Radiometric dating places the mandible at around 600,000 years ago, making it the oldest hominin fossil found in Germany.

Mauer is significant for understanding Neanderthal evolution. The H. heidelbergensis found here marks an early phase in the development of Neanderthal ancestry. It helps define the lower time boundary for their emergence, suggesting that by 600,000 years ago, the Neanderthal lineage had already started to diverge. The fossils at Mauer provide crucial evidence that H. heidelbergensis contributed to the Neanderthal evolutionary line, and their traits would later be more clearly defined around 400,000 years ago in sites like Sima de los Huesos.

Conclusion:

We’ve reconstructed their tools, social lives, and burial rituals—but there’s still so much we don’t know. Were they capable of symbolic thought? How did they truly interact with early Homo sapiens? And just how much of their legacy still lives on within us? The story of the Neanderthals is far from over. The discoveries at sites like La Ferrassie, Krapina, and Sima de los Huesos continue to challenge our understanding of the past. But there’s still so much more to learn.

For more on ancient hominin species, watch my video on Homo erectus HERE. Their story is just as fascinating - if not more.

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